Agriculture
Plant cloning is the production of a cell, cell component, or plant that is genetically identical to the unit or individual from which it was derived.
The term?clone? is derived from the Greek word klon, meaning a slip or twig. Hence, it is an appropriate choice. Plants have been ?cloned? from stem cuttings or whole-plant divisions for many centuries, perhaps dating back as far as the beginnings of agriculture.
Historical Background
In 1838 German scientists Matthias Schleiden and Theodor Schwann presented their cell theory, which states, in part, that all life is composed of cells and that all cells arise from preexisting cells.
This theory formed the basis for the concept of totipotency, which states that since cells must contain all of the genetic information necessary to create an entire, multicellular organism, all of the cells of a multicellular organism retain the potential to recreate, or regenerate, the entire organism. Thus was the basis for plant cell culture research.
The first attempt at culturing isolated plant tissues was by Austrian botanist Gottlieb Haberlandt at the beginning of the twentieth century, but it was unsuccessful. In 1939 Professor R. J. Gautheret and colleagues demonstrated the first successful culture of isolated plant tissues as a continuously dividing callus tissue.
The term callus is defined as an unorganized mass of dividing cells, such as in a wound response. It was not until 1954, however, that the first whole plant was regenerated, or cloned, from a single adult plant cell by W.H.Muir et al.
Thereafter, an increased understanding of plant physiology, especially the role of plant hormones in plant growth and development, contributed to rapid advances in plant cell and tissue culture technologies in the 1970?s and 1980?s. Many plant species have been successfully cloned from single cells, thus demonstrating and affirming the concept of totipotency.
Horticulture
By far, the greatest impact of cloning plants in vitro (Latin for ?in glass,? meaning in the laboratory or outside the plant) has been on the horticultural industry. In the 1980?s plant tissue culture technologies propagated and produced many millions of plants.
Today, many economically important plants are commonly propagated via tissue culture techniques, including vegetable crops (such as the potato), fruit crops (strawberries and dates), floriculture species (orchids, lilies, roses, Boston ferns), and even woody species (pines and grapes).
The advantages of plant cell, tissue, and organ culture technologies include a more rapid production of plants, taking weeks instead of months or years. Much less space is required (square feet instead of field plots).
Plants can be produced year-round, and economic, political, and environmental considerations that hamper the propagation of regional or endangered plant species can be reduced. The disadvantages include the high start-up costs for facilities, the skilled labor required, and the need to maintain sterile conditions.
Two other significant considerations must be considered as a result of plant propagation technologies. As illustrated by the Irish Potato Famine of the 1840?s, the cultivation of whole fields of genetically identical plants (monoculture) leaves the entire crop vulnerable to pest and disease infestations.
The second important consideration when generating entire populations of clones, especially using tissue culture technologies, is the potential for introducing genetic abnormalities, which then are present in the entire population of plants produced, a process termed somaclonal variation.
Biotechnology
An absolute requirement for genetic engineering of plants is the ability to regenerate an entire plant from a single, genetically transformed cell, thus emphasizing the second major impact of plant cell culture technologies.
In 1994 the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approved the first genetically modified whole food crop, Calgene?s Flavr Savr tomato. This plant was produced using what is termed anti-sense technology. One of the tomato?s genes involved in fruit ripening was reversed, thus inactivating it and allowing tomatoes produced from it to have significantly delayed ripening.
Although no longer commercially marketed, the Flavr Savr demonstrated the impact of genetic engineering in moving modern agriculture from the Green Revolution into what has been termed the Gene Revolution.
Other examples of agricultural engineering exist today, such as Roundup Ready Soybeans, engineered to resist the herbicide used on weeds where soybeans are grown, and BT Corn,which contains a bacterial gene conveying increased pest resistance.
Since 1987, the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) has required field testing of genetically modified crops to demonstrate that their use will not be disruptive to the natural ecosystem.
To date, thousands of field trials have been completed or are in progress for genetically modified versions of several crop species, including potatoes, cotton, alfalfa, canola, and cucumbers.
- The Benefits Of Agricultural
Agricultural biotechnology is any technique in Which living organisms, or parts of organisms are altered to make or modify agricultural products, to improve crops, or develop microbes for specific uses in agricultural processes. Simply put, when the...
- Monoculture Farming
The concept of monoculture in agriculture refers to the cultivation of a crop over a large area. Monoculture is the norm in most large commercial agriculture in the U.S. and in many parts of the world. Monoculture has certain short-term benefit, primarily...
- Cell Theory
The notion that the cell is the smallest division of life and its attendant principles have been developed over the past three centuries and are collectively known as the cell theory. Before the invention of the microscope, people studying living organisms...
- Genetically Modified Bacteria
Genetically Modified BacteriaBacteria may be genetically modified through the introduction of recombinant DNA molecules into their cells. Such bacteria may be used to produce human insulin or introduce disease-resistant genes into plants, as well as numerous...
- Plant Biotechnology
Plant BiotechnologyPlant biotechnology may be defined as the application of knowledge obtained from study of the life sciences to create technological improvements in plant species. By this very broad definition, plant biotechnology has been conducted...
Agriculture
Cloning of Plants
The term?clone? is derived from the Greek word klon, meaning a slip or twig. Hence, it is an appropriate choice. Plants have been ?cloned? from stem cuttings or whole-plant divisions for many centuries, perhaps dating back as far as the beginnings of agriculture.
Historical Background
In 1838 German scientists Matthias Schleiden and Theodor Schwann presented their cell theory, which states, in part, that all life is composed of cells and that all cells arise from preexisting cells.
This theory formed the basis for the concept of totipotency, which states that since cells must contain all of the genetic information necessary to create an entire, multicellular organism, all of the cells of a multicellular organism retain the potential to recreate, or regenerate, the entire organism. Thus was the basis for plant cell culture research.
The first attempt at culturing isolated plant tissues was by Austrian botanist Gottlieb Haberlandt at the beginning of the twentieth century, but it was unsuccessful. In 1939 Professor R. J. Gautheret and colleagues demonstrated the first successful culture of isolated plant tissues as a continuously dividing callus tissue.
The term callus is defined as an unorganized mass of dividing cells, such as in a wound response. It was not until 1954, however, that the first whole plant was regenerated, or cloned, from a single adult plant cell by W.H.Muir et al.
Thereafter, an increased understanding of plant physiology, especially the role of plant hormones in plant growth and development, contributed to rapid advances in plant cell and tissue culture technologies in the 1970?s and 1980?s. Many plant species have been successfully cloned from single cells, thus demonstrating and affirming the concept of totipotency.
Horticulture
Today, many economically important plants are commonly propagated via tissue culture techniques, including vegetable crops (such as the potato), fruit crops (strawberries and dates), floriculture species (orchids, lilies, roses, Boston ferns), and even woody species (pines and grapes).
The advantages of plant cell, tissue, and organ culture technologies include a more rapid production of plants, taking weeks instead of months or years. Much less space is required (square feet instead of field plots).
Plants can be produced year-round, and economic, political, and environmental considerations that hamper the propagation of regional or endangered plant species can be reduced. The disadvantages include the high start-up costs for facilities, the skilled labor required, and the need to maintain sterile conditions.
Two other significant considerations must be considered as a result of plant propagation technologies. As illustrated by the Irish Potato Famine of the 1840?s, the cultivation of whole fields of genetically identical plants (monoculture) leaves the entire crop vulnerable to pest and disease infestations.
Biotechnology
An absolute requirement for genetic engineering of plants is the ability to regenerate an entire plant from a single, genetically transformed cell, thus emphasizing the second major impact of plant cell culture technologies.
In 1994 the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approved the first genetically modified whole food crop, Calgene?s Flavr Savr tomato. This plant was produced using what is termed anti-sense technology. One of the tomato?s genes involved in fruit ripening was reversed, thus inactivating it and allowing tomatoes produced from it to have significantly delayed ripening.
Although no longer commercially marketed, the Flavr Savr demonstrated the impact of genetic engineering in moving modern agriculture from the Green Revolution into what has been termed the Gene Revolution.
Since 1987, the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) has required field testing of genetically modified crops to demonstrate that their use will not be disruptive to the natural ecosystem.
To date, thousands of field trials have been completed or are in progress for genetically modified versions of several crop species, including potatoes, cotton, alfalfa, canola, and cucumbers.
- The Benefits Of Agricultural
Agricultural biotechnology is any technique in Which living organisms, or parts of organisms are altered to make or modify agricultural products, to improve crops, or develop microbes for specific uses in agricultural processes. Simply put, when the...
- Monoculture Farming
The concept of monoculture in agriculture refers to the cultivation of a crop over a large area. Monoculture is the norm in most large commercial agriculture in the U.S. and in many parts of the world. Monoculture has certain short-term benefit, primarily...
- Cell Theory
The notion that the cell is the smallest division of life and its attendant principles have been developed over the past three centuries and are collectively known as the cell theory. Before the invention of the microscope, people studying living organisms...
- Genetically Modified Bacteria
Genetically Modified BacteriaBacteria may be genetically modified through the introduction of recombinant DNA molecules into their cells. Such bacteria may be used to produce human insulin or introduce disease-resistant genes into plants, as well as numerous...
- Plant Biotechnology
Plant BiotechnologyPlant biotechnology may be defined as the application of knowledge obtained from study of the life sciences to create technological improvements in plant species. By this very broad definition, plant biotechnology has been conducted...